Ottoman Sultans
By Paul Allen
Osman I, Osman Gazi (unkown-1324)
Osman I founded
the Imperial Ottoman dynasty, also called the House of Osman. Osman’s Turkish
tribe resided in central Anatolia in the fourteenth century. Little is known of
Osman’s early life and instead myths and legends have arisen about his origins.
However, what little is known of Osman’s early life is he was the son of
Ertogrul, a Turkish tribal leader in Anatolia. Osman’s rule could be
characterized by his ambitions and expansion of rule in western Anatolia during
his reign. The Byzantium subjects in the region had grown tired of Byzantine
rule and joined Osman. Byzantine saw the threat Osman posed on the Empire and
the Byzantine emperor, Andronikos II Palaiologos, led a Byzantine army to meet
Osman. Osman and the Byzantine Emperor met at Bapheus in 1301 and Osman
prevailed over the Byzantine army. After Osman’s victory, he claimed control
over the surrounding Turkish tribes in western Anatolia. There are not many
primary sources on Osman’s reign but many secondary sources from the
Byzantines, Ottomans, and other western scholars recorded the events of his
reign.[1]
Ohran Gazi (1324-1362)
Ohran succeeded
his father Osman I as ruler of the Ottoman Turks. More information and sources
have survived on the reign of Ohran than his father. Ohran’s reign can be
characterized by the conquest of new territory in Anatolia and Europe for the
Ottomans during the mid fourteenth century. Ohran lead the Ottoman armies into
the Balkans and the western part of the Byzantine Empire. He established the
first Ottoman capital in the city of Bursa in northwestern Anatolia. Ohran
conducted numerous raids on the Byzantine Empire and collected treasures and
respect. The Byzantines attempted to retaliate to Ohran’s attacks but their
army was defeated at Pelekanon in 1329. The Byzantine Emperor was forced to
sign a peace treaty with the Ottomans and Ohran took the cities Bithynia,
Nicaea, and Nicomedia from Byzantine. The peace between the Ottomans and the
Byzantines proved to be unstable and the Byzantine Empire broke into civil war.
Ohran took the side of the Byzantine Emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, and
married his daughter Theodora to seal an alliance. With Ohran’s marriage to the
Byzantine princess, he gained new territory in the Balkans from the Byzantines.
Ohran established ports along the Aegean Sea from conquered lands and
established an Ottoman Navy. Ohran died in 1362, leaving a stable and growing
empire after his rule. His reign also consisted of the assimilation of
Byzantine and Islamic/Turkish culture. His subjects experienced a new society
of shared ideas and customs. [2]
Murad I (1326-1389), (r. 1362-1389)
Murad I became the
successor of his father Ohran and served as the first sultan of the Ottoman
state. During Murad’s reign he conquered new lands for the Ottomans but some if
his territorial gains came by marriage to Christian and Muslim princesses to
gain land and vassalage of allies. Murad also offered military fiefs to
Christian nobility in the Balkans and gained their allegiance. The first sultan
also created new military institutions, most notably the Janissaries that
served as the sultan’s personal body guard and would play a large role in Ottoman
warfare and politics. Murad conquered territory not only through marriage but
also through conquest. He fought the Karamanids, the rival Turkish tribe in
Anatolia, and advanced further into Europe. Murad won a great victory at the
Battle of Kosovo against his European enemies however he lost his life in the
battle. The end of his reign left a more centralized Ottoman state.[3]
Bayezid I, Yildirim (Thunderbolt) (1354-1403), (r. 1389-1402)
Bayezid I
succeeded his father Murad I and his mother was a Byzantine princess.[4]
Bayezid’s reign could be characterized by constant fighting in the western and
eastern parts of the Ottoman state. Bayezid’s first involvement in Ottoman
politics consisted of his marriage to a Turkish emir’s daughter to seal a
vassalage for his father in Anatolia. He fought against the Karamanids in
Anatolia and gained the nickname, Yildirim or “Thunderbolt.” With the death of
his father in 1389, Bayezid became the next sultan of the Ottoman state. To
eliminate any possible contest to the sultanate, Bayezid had is brothers
executed. Bayezid focused on the expansion of the empire in the Balkans and
Anatolia, which had been the trend set by former sultans. Bayezid proved to be
successful against his Islamic and Christian enemies until he met Timur in
eastern Anatolia, who claimed he came from the lineage of the Mongol Khans.
Timur proved to be match for Bayezid and captured Bayezid at the Battle of
Ankara in 1402. With the capture of the Ottoman sultan and his death while in
captivity, the Ottoman state went through a period of decline.[5]
Mehmed I, Mehmed Celebi (Prince Mehmed), Kirisci (Young Lord)
(1387-1421) (r. 1413-1421)
After the capture
and death of the sultan Bayezid I, his sons contested for the throne between
1402-1413. Mehmed fought his brothers Suleyman and Musa for the throne. Mehmed
acquired the support of the Byzantines, Christian nobles, and eastern Anatolian
emirates. He defeated his brothers Suleyman and Musa and succeeded his father
Bayezid I as sultan in 1413. Mehmed went on to conquer emirates and others that
opposed him. He defeated the opposition of the Karamanids but he did not
incorporate their lands into the Ottoman state. Mehmed’s successes alarmed the
Byzantines and another brother of Mehmed’s, Mustafa, attempted to gain the
support of the Balkan lords and challenged Mehmed. Mehmed however defeated his
brother and his supporters into submission. Mehmed punished all those that
opposed him including a Muslim judge, Sheikh Bedreddin, whom he hung publicly
in 1416. In the latter reign of Mehmed, he became ill and sent his two youngest
sons to the custody of the Byzantine Emperor. Mehmed promised that the
Byzantine Emperor would be paid to upkeep his younger sons. Mehmed I died in
1421, leaving the sultanate to his son Murad II.[6]
Murad II (1404-1451) (r. 1421-1444, 1446-1451)
Murad II succeed
his father Mehmed I as the next sultan of the Ottoman state and was born in
1404 in Amasya. Mehmed I sent his son to be the prince-governor of Amasya when
he was young and Murad aided his father in the consolidation of the Ottoman
state after the fall of his grandfather Bayezid I. When Mehmed I died in 1421,
Murad took the sultanate. However, his father’s brother Mustafa resided in the
Byzantine capital of Constantinople and he claimed to be the successor to
Mehmed I. Mustafa left Constantinople and took control in the Balkans. Mustafa
attempted to cross into Anatolia to challenge Murad but Murad’s forces repelled
Mustafa’s advance. Mustafa retreated and made his way back to the city of
Edirne in the Balkans. However, on the outskirts of Edirne, Murad’s supporters
hung Mustafa. Murad also faced other challengers such as his younger brother,
named Mustafa as well. Murad’s younger brother, Mustafa, also attempted to challenge
Murad. Murad defeated his brother and had him executed. Murad fought to keep
his holdings in the east and western parts of the Ottoman state. Murad fought
against European powers such as Venice and Hungary. Murad made a peace with
Hungary in 1444 and abdicated the throne, leaving it to his young son Mehmed
II. Murad went into retirement but had to be called back to lead the Ottoman
armies against crusading armies threatening the Ottomans. Murad defeated the
crusaders and took back to the throne after a Janissary revolt against his son.
Murad died in 1451 after his victory over crusaders again at the second Battle
of Kosovo.[7]
Mehmed II, Mehmed Fatih (1432-1481) (r. 1444-1446, 1451-1481)
The fourth son of
Murad II, Mehmed did not expect to become the next successor to the sultanate.
Mehmed was born in Edirne, the Ottoman capital under Murad II. Mehmed in his
younger years went to the city of Amasya to be with his oldest half brother,
Ahmed Celebi, the governor of Amasya. Another of Mehmed’s brothers also resided
in Amasya, Alaeddin Ali. Ahmed Celebi died in 1437 and both Alaeddin and Mehmed
became governors in the cities of Amaysa and Manisa. Alaeddin served as Murad’s
favorite but he was assassinated in 1443 while fighting against Karaman. Mehmed
became the next heir to the sultanate and he went to Edirne to learn the
politics of the Ottoman court. Murad ventured to fight crusading armies and
Mehmed served as regent in Edirne. After Murad returned, he relinquished the
throne and Mehmed took over with the help of his advisors and father’s chief
vizier Cadarli Halil Pasha. However, Mehmed’s first rule proved to be
tumultuous and his father had to return in 1446 to put down a Janissary revolt
and restore order. Mehmed served with his father in his last years as sultan
and Murad II died in 1451. Mehmed took control again but it would differ the
second time than before.[8]
In Mehmed’s second
reign, he attempted to consolidate the Ottoman state, fight or sign treaties
with his enemies in the west and east, and focus on conquering the Byzantines.
The Ottomans had reduced the Byzantine Empire to Constantinople and its
surrounding lands. Mehmed became set on conquering the great city and unifying
the Ottoman east and west. The siege began in early 1453 and only lasted 54
days. The Ottomans outnumbered the Byzantine defenders and used cannons to
bring down the walls of Constantinople.[9]
Mehmed’s men plundered the city for three days before Mehmed entered the city
himself as the conqueror.[10]
Constantinople became the new Ottoman capital of Istanbul. The Ottomans had
become an empire with the conquest of the Byzantines and Mehemd continued to
campaign in Europe. He died in 1481 while campaigning in Anatolia but left a
legacy of conquest.[11]
Bayezid II (1448-1512) (r. 1481-1512)
Bayezid
II began his political career in 1456, when his father sent him to Amasya to
serve as governor and protect the eastern part of the empire. Bayezid’s brother
Cem became the favorite of their father and his Grand Vizier Karamani Mehmed
Pasha.[12]
After Mehmed died, Karamani wanted Cem to be the successor but the Janissaries
killed Karamani. Cem claimed to be sultan in the Balkans but Bayezid defeated
him and sent him into exile under the control of European powers. Bayezid’s
reign can be described like his ancestors with conquest and war. He fought the
Mamluks of Egypt for territory in Anatolia and the Venetians for naval
supremacy in the Mediterranean. Bayezid’s two sons fought for control of the
throne in Bayezid’s final years as
sultan. Ahmed was Bayzid’s favorite and pick to become the next sultan but his
other son Selim pursued the sultanate as well. Bayezid died as his son Selim
forcefully took the sultanate from him.[13]
Selim I (1470-1520) (r. 1512-1520)
Selim’s
rise to power can be characterized by his fight against his father and his
brother Ahmed.[14]
He ruled as a governor on the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire against the
Safavids. Selim gained an advantage with the support of the Janissaries and
took the sultanate in 1512 from Bayezid II. The Janissaries did not favor Ahmed
and prevented him from entering Istanbul when he attempted to take the
sultanate. Selim gained control over Anatolia, conquered the Mamluks in Syria
and Egypt, and took control over the holy cities Mecca and Medina. His
conquests strengthened the rule of the House of Osman. Selim began plans to
expand the Ottoman navy but with his death in 1520, his plans could not be met.
With the death of Selim, his son Suleyman took the sultanate and under his rule
the Ottoman Empire would experience further expansion and glory.[15]
Suleyman I, the Magnificent, Kanuni, the Lawgiver (1494-1566)
(r.1520-1566)
Suleyman’s
rule can be characterized as the climax of the Ottoman Empire. Suleyman
extended the Ottoman Empire to its greatest extent in territory. The Ottomans
during Suleyman’s reign warred against the Safavids in the east, the Habsburgs
and Hungarians in the west, and conquered the island of Rhodes from the Order
of St. John. The early part of Suleyman’s reign can be described mostly by
conquest. Suleyman focused more on his European enemies by conquering Hungary
and threatening Vienna twice. Suleyman’s attention in the east against the
Safavids was not centered on conquest but rather restraining the Safavids from
expanding west towards the Ottomans.[16]
Suleyman lead 13 campaigns during his lifetime but his rule can also be
characterized by social feats as well. Suleyman was known as “the Lawgiver” to
his people and most Muslims because he complied the secular laws to coincide
with the Shari’a law. Suleyman’s successes cannot be his credit alone but also
the work of his advisors and viziers throughout his reign. Suleyman controlled
the Holy Cities in Arabia and claimed the title of Caliph because he protected
the pilgrimage. Suleyman’s health declined later in his life and died while on
a campaign in Hungary when he was 72 years old.[17]
Suleyman I served as a conqueror but also a leader that cared for his people
and empire. [18]
Selim II (1524-1574) (r. 1566-1574)
The tradition of
fighting for the Ottoman sultanate had defined past successions to the throne.
For Selim, by 1559, all of his brothers had died and left only him as the heir
to Suleyman I. When Suleyman died in Hungary, his Grand Vizier kept it concealed
so as to prepare Selim for a smooth succession. Selim made his way to Belgrade
to meet Suleyman’s army and give his father a proper burial.[19]
The Grand Vizier, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, served Suleyman I and became Selim’s
Grand Vizier as well. Sokollu gained much power serving under Selim. His reign
is not characterized by much conquest or war. The sultan became less of a
general and more a player in the rise of the court system in Ottoman politics.
The court system would change the empire and the role of the sultan permanently
after Suleyman I.[20]
Under Selim II’s
reign, the politics of the Ottoman Empire changed from previous rulers. The
sultan held a powerful position as the ultimate ruler of the Ottomans and the
religious leader as Caliph. However, after the rule of Suleyman I, the role of
the sultan became less of a conqueror and warrior. The rise of the Ottoman
court began to share political power with the sultan. Also within the rising
power of court politics, it became important to be a favorite of the sultan and
therefore gain authority because of his favor. Suleyman I began the fusion of
the government and the sultan’s household in the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul.[21]
With the fusion of government and the royal household, the heirs to the
sultanate ceased to become governors of provinces but rather grew up learning
court politics within the palace in Istanbul. This new environment created the
atmosphere that created the court system in Ottoman politics. With the rise of
court politics, the sultan did not have time to be a conqueror nor be a warrior
like his predecessors. The Ottoman sultan had to rule his empire mostly from
his palace and through his aristocracy after Suleyman I.
Bibliography
Agoston,
Gabor, and Bruce Masters. Encyclopedia of
the Ottoman Empire. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009.
Goodwin,
Jason. Lords of the Horizon: A History of
the Ottoman Empire. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc, 1998.
Finkel, Caroline. Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman
Empire 1300-1923. New York: Basic Books, A Member of the Perseus Books
Group, 2005.
[1] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Osman I”
[2] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Ohran Gazi.”
[3] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Murad I.”
[4]
Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizon: A
History of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc,
1998), 22.
[5] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Bayezid I.”
[6] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Mehmed I.”
[7] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Murad II.”
[8] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Mehmed II.”
[9]
Goodwin, Lords of the Horizon, 34,
35.
[10]
Ibid., 39.
[11] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Mehmed II.”
[12]
Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story
of the Ottoman Empire 1300-1923 (New York: Basic Books, A Member of the
Perseus Books Group, 2005), 100.
[13] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Bayezid II.”
[14]
Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 102.
[15] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Selim I.”
[16]
Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 118.
[17]
Ibid., 151.
[18] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Suleyman I.”
[19]
Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 152.
[20] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Selim II.”
[21] Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, s.v.
“Suleyman I.”
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